Creatine Supplementation in Children and Adolescents
Peer-reviewed evidence review.
Creatine research
The evidence base for creatine
Creatine is one of the most extensively studied nutritional compounds in human performance and is increasingly researched across healthy aging, cognition, women's health, metabolic health and clinical populations. This Data Center brings together foundational trials, randomized human studies, systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Each record is linked to its source and graded by study design; medical reviewer sign-off is shown only where it has actually been completed.
Evidence at a glance
43
Tier 1
37
Tier 2
6
Tier 3
3
Tier 4
Adolescents and safety
Evaluating the Safety of Creatine Monohydrate in Adolescents: A Systematic Review of Renal, Hepatic, and Cardiometabolic Outcomes
Systematic review focused specifically on safety in adolescent and youth populations.
Bioavailability and creatine forms
Methodological Approaches to Bioavailability of Oral Creatine in Randomized Controlled Trials: A Meta-Research Study
Large meta-research study evaluating how creatine formulations and bioavailability are reported across randomized trials.
Body composition and dosing
Creatine supplementation protocols with or without training interventions on body composition: a GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Sourcedoi:10.1080/15502783.2024.2380058PMID 39042054PMC11268231
Body composition and muscle growth
The Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Resistance Training-Based Changes to Body Composition: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Brain and cognition
The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Creatine supplementation research fails to support the theoretical basis for an effect on cognition: Evidence from a systematic review
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Brain and memory
Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Brain health and aging
Creatine and Cognition in Aging: A Systematic Review of Evidence in Older Adults
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Brain health and cognition
Creatine Supplementation and the Brain: Have We Put the Cart Before the Horse?
Invited expert narrative review synthesizing human brain-creatine measurement, dosing, cognition and clinical evidence; useful for interpretation but not a quantitative meta-analysis.
Brain health and methodology
Creatine supplementation and brain health: Methodological challenges, current evidence, and translational perspectives
Critical methodological review focused on brain creatine measurement, dose-response uncertainty and translational limits; valuable for interpreting cognition studies but not a systematic treatment-effect estimate.
Brain health and sleep deprivation
Single dose creatine improves cognitive performance and induces changes in cerebral high energy phosphates during sleep deprivation
Randomized within-subject human intervention with brain spectroscopy and cognitive outcomes.
Sourcedoi:10.1038/s41598-024-54249-9PMID 38418482PMC10902318
Creatine Supplementation and Acute Sleep Deprivation: A Systematic Review of Cognitive, Psychomotor, and Mood Outcomes
Systematic review synthesizing the limited human creatine literature during acute sleep deprivation.
Single-Dose Creatine Reduces Sleep Deprivation-Induced Deterioration in Cognitive Performance
Randomized placebo-controlled human sleep-deprivation experiment evaluating a single lower creatine dose.
Brain health, aging and dementia
The cognitive effects of creatine supplementation in older adults and preclinical models of dementia: A scoping review
Structured scoping review using JBI and PRISMA-ScR methods across human and preclinical dementia-related evidence.
Brain health, cognition and evidence methodology
Creatine Supplementation for Cognition: A Critical Perspective on Promise, Proof, and Public Perception
Peer-reviewed critical perspective on cognition claims rather than a new trial or systematic quantitative synthesis.
Brain health, cognition and regulatory evidence
Creatine and improvement in cognitive function: Evaluation of a health claim pursuant to article 13(5) of regulation (EC) No 1924/2006
Regulatory scientific opinion evaluating the totality of identified human intervention evidence for a cognition health claim.
Brain health, mood and cognition
Neuropsychiatric Effects of Creatine: What Does the Preclinical and Clinical Evidence Conclude?
Narrative review combining preclinical and clinical evidence on affective disorders and cognition.
Brain, cognition and evidence methodology
Commentary: The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Methodological commentary that directly challenges the unit-of-analysis approach in a widely cited 2024 creatine cognition meta-analysis; useful for certainty appraisal rather than estimating treatment effect.
Clinical musculoskeletal and rheumatology
Impact of creatine supplementation alone or combined with exercise on inflammatory and clinical outcomes in chronic musculoskeletal pain treated in the rheumatological field: a systematic review
Systematic review of human clinical studies in rheumatologic and chronic musculoskeletal-pain populations.
Creatine HCl vs monohydrate
Supplementing With Which Form of Creatine (Hydrochloride or Monohydrate) Alongside Resistance Training Can Have More Impacts on Anabolic/Catabolic Hormones, Strength and Body Composition?
Randomized controlled human intervention study.
Sourcedoi:10.33549/physiolres.935323PMID 39545789PMC11629957
Creatine formats and gummies
Effect of two different creatine supplementation products on muscular strength and power
Double-blind controlled human trial directly comparing creatine monohydrate delivered as powder and a solid gelled-candy format against matched placebos.
Creatine forms and comparisons
Efficacy of Alternative Forms of Creatine Supplementation on Improving Performance and Body Composition in Healthy Subjects: A Systematic Review
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
A buffered form of creatine does not promote greater changes in muscle creatine content, body composition, or training adaptations than creatine monohydrate
Controlled human intervention study.
Creatine gummies, women and sports performance
Effects of Creatine Monohydrate Gummies on Performance and Body Composition in Female Beach Volleyball Athletes
Randomized controlled human sports-performance study of a gummy creatine delivery format, but with a nonsupplemented control rather than placebo gummy or powder comparator.
Creatine uptake and dosing
Carbohydrate ingestion augments skeletal muscle creatine accumulation during creatine supplementation in humans
Controlled human intervention study.
Creatine, caffeine and exercise performance
Interaction Between Caffeine and Creatine When Used as Concurrent Ergogenic Supplements: A Systematic Review
Systematic review of human studies directly evaluating concurrent creatine and caffeine supplementation.
Effects of creatine and caffeine ingestion in combination on exercise performance: A systematic review
Systematic review of human exercise studies evaluating creatine and caffeine in combination.
Caffeine counteracts the ergogenic action of muscle creatine loading
Controlled human supplementation trial directly comparing creatine with creatine plus caffeine.
Creatine, caffeine, coffee and exercise performance
Effects of coffee and caffeine anhydrous intake during creatine loading
Randomized, partially blinded human trial directly comparing creatine alone, creatine plus caffeine, creatine plus coffee and placebo.
Sourcedoi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000001223PMID 26439785PMC4808512
Dosing and loading
Muscle creatine loading in men
Controlled human intervention study.
Dosing and older adults
Meta-Analysis Examining the Importance of Creatine Ingestion Strategies on Lean Tissue Mass and Strength in Older Adults
Meta-analysis directly comparing creatine ingestion strategies in older adults undergoing resistance training.
Dosing and timing
Acute Creatine Ingestion Before Resistance Training Enhances Strength Performance More than Ingestion During or After Training: A Randomized Crossover Pilot Trial
Randomized placebo-controlled crossover pilot directly comparing acute pre-, during- and post-exercise creatine timing.
Dosing, safety and misconceptions
Part II. Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?
Peer-reviewed evidence review.
Sourcedoi:10.1080/15502783.2024.2441760PMID 39720835PMC11703406
Endurance and mixed-sport performance
Creatine Supplementation in Endurance and Mixed-Sport Contexts: A Scoping Review of Performance, Recovery, and Body Composition
Systematic scoping review of randomized trials in endurance and mixed-sport contexts; useful for mapping outcome-specific evidence but does not provide a single pooled effect estimate.
Endurance performance
Effects of Creatine Monohydrate on Endurance Performance in a Trained Population: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Exercise performance
Influence of oral creatine supplementation of muscle torque during repeated bouts of maximal voluntary exercise in man
Controlled human intervention study.
Exercise performance and mechanism
Creatine ingestion favorably affects performance and muscle metabolism during maximal exercise in humans
Controlled human intervention study.
Exercise recovery and muscle damage
The Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Markers of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Intervention Trials
Systematic review and meta-analysis restricted to randomized human intervention trials on exercise-induced muscle damage and recovery.
The Paradoxical Effect of Creatine Monohydrate on Muscle Damage Markers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Systematic review and meta-analysis of human creatine-monohydrate studies evaluating exercise-induced muscle-damage outcomes.
Hair loss and safety
Does creatine cause hair loss? A 12-week randomized controlled trial
Controlled human intervention study.
Healthy aging, strength and physical function
Effects of high-load, velocity-intentional variable resistance training combined with creatine supplementation on neuroplasticity, oxidative stress, inflammation, physical function, cognitive performance and quality of life in older adults: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled 16-week trial in more than 100 community-dwelling older adults.
Sourcedoi:10.1016/j.exger.2026.113122PMID 41941966 Trial registry
Hydration, cramps and heat safety
Does creatine supplementation hinder exercise heat tolerance or hydration status? A systematic review with meta-analyses
Systematic review with meta-analyses of controlled studies on hydration and thermoregulation.
Inflammation and recovery
Impact of creatine supplementation on inflammation: evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized double-blind placebo trials
Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized double-blind placebo-controlled human trials, with GRADE assessment.
Sourcedoi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1743603PMID 41798953PMC12961398
Kidney safety
Impact of creatine supplementation on kidney health: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Effect of creatine supplementation on kidney function: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
The Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Kidney Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials
Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized human kidney-function trials.
Mechanism and loading
Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation
Controlled human intervention study.
Menopause and bone health
A 2-yr Randomized Controlled Trial on Creatine Supplementation during Exercise for Postmenopausal Bone Health
Long-duration randomized placebo-controlled human trial in postmenopausal women.
Sourcedoi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000003202PMID 37144634PMC10487398
Menopause and brain bioenergetics
Brain creatine, estradiol and neurocognitive complaints in perimenopausal women: an exploratory cross-sectional study
Small exploratory cross-sectional magnetic-resonance spectroscopy study; useful for mechanism generation but not supplementation efficacy.
Menopause and healthy aging
Creatine monohydrate for lean mass, strength, and bone density in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Sourcedoi:10.1080/15502783.2026.2668435PMID 42141930PMC13182165
Menopause, cognition and creatine forms
The Effects of 8-Week Creatine Hydrochloride and Creatine Ethyl Ester Supplementation on Cognition, Clinical Outcomes, and Brain Creatine Levels in Perimenopausal and Menopausal Women (CONCRET-MENOPA): A Randomized Controlled Trial
Double-blind randomized placebo-controlled human trial, but small with four study arms and non-monohydrate creatine formulations.
Mental health and brain bioenergetics
A randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial of oral creatine monohydrate augmentation for enhanced response to a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in women with major depressive disorder
Controlled human intervention study.
Sourcedoi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12010009PMID 22864465PMC4624319
Mental health and depression
Creatine supplementation for treating symptoms of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials evaluating depressive symptoms.
Metabolic health and diabetes
Creatine in type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Controlled human intervention study.
Micronized creatine and bioavailability
Comparative Efficacy and Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Micronized Creatine Monohydrate (KleanCREATINE™) in Active Men: A Randomized, Controlled Clinical Study
Randomized human comparison of a branded micronized creatine monohydrate with a marketed creatine monohydrate, including pharmacokinetics and an eight-week training phase; important but small and sponsor-linked.
Middle age, healthy aging, body composition and weight loss
Effects of creatine supplementation with and without exercise and diet intervention on body composition, cognitive function, and markers of health in middle-aged and older adults
Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled supplement comparison within participant-selected exercise/non-exercise strata; contemporary human trial with directly relevant 10 g/day dosing.
Sourcedoi:10.1080/15502783.2026.2716273PMID 42578920PMC13463452
Musculoskeletal
Effects of creatine supplementation on muscle strength gains—a meta-analysis and systematic review
This study is a systematic review and meta-analysis synthesizing data from 14 randomized human trials to evaluate the efficacy of a specific intervention across multiple subgroups.
Eight weeks of creatine monohydrate supplementation is associated with increased muscle strength and size in Alzheimer's disease: data from a single-arm pilot study
This is a small, single-arm, uncontrolled pilot study designed to generate preliminary, hypothesis-generating findings rather than definitive clinical efficacy.
International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine
A society position stand synthesising the human creatine literature into consensus dosing and safety guidance. It is the field's reference document for creatine dosing protocols, but it is a consensus synthesis of ingredient-level human evidence rather than a trial of any finished consumer product.
Older adults and healthy aging
Impact of creatine supplementation and exercise training in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Systematic review and meta-analysis of older-adult exercise trials.
Sourcedoi:10.1186/s11556-025-00384-9PMID 41062952PMC12506341
Older adults and strength
Effects of resistance training combined with creatine supplementation on muscle strength, physical function, and muscle mass in older adults: a systematic review and three-level meta-analysis
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Performance and cognition
Creatine monohydrate improved cycling Wingate performance but not cognitive function in young active males and females
Controlled human trial including equal numbers of young active men and women, with physical and cognitive endpoints.
Physical function and disability
Creatine supplementation for optimization of physical function in the patient at risk of functional disability: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Product quality, purity and adulteration
Assessing the authenticity of the sport supplement creatine using spectroscopic techniques and multivariate analysis
Laboratory authenticity study of 149 commercial creatine samples; directly relevant to product-quality and third-party-testing discussions but not to clinical efficacy.
Rehabilitation, muscle disuse and recovery
Creatine monohydrate supplementation for recovery from muscle disuse: Timing matters
Narrative mini-review synthesizing human immobilization, reloading and rehabilitation studies rather than a new controlled trial or quantitative meta-analysis.
Sourcedoi:10.1016/j.smhs.2026.05.006PMID 42539704PMC13424173
Resistance training and body composition
Resistance training combined with creatine supplementation: a three-level meta-analysis of multidimensional outcomes from strength enhancement to body composition remodeling
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Resistance training, muscle growth and training status
Creatine supplementation and resistance training: a comparison between novice and experienced lifters - a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis
Systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of 61 controlled resistance-training trials, with explicit analysis by training experience.
Sourcedoi:10.1080/15502783.2025.2586523PMID 41433021PMC12777911
Safety and adverse effects
Safety of creatine supplementation: analysis of the prevalence of reported side effects in clinical trials and adverse event reports
Large structured human safety evidence synthesis spanning hundreds of clinical trials.
Sourcedoi:10.1080/15502783.2025.2488937PMID 40198156PMC11983583
Safety and misconceptions
Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?
Peer-reviewed evidence review.
Safety, dose and duration
Creatine Supplementation Dose and Duration Are Not Associated with Increased Side Effects: A Structured Review and Study-Level Dose-Response Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials
Structured review and dose-response analysis across hundreds of randomized human trials.
Short-term performance and recovery
Short-term creatine supplementation enhances strength, reduces fatigue, and accelerates recovery in resistance-trained athletes: a double-blind, randomized, crossover trial
Double-blind randomized crossover human trial directly testing a three-day high-dose creatine protocol in resistance-trained men.
Sourcedoi:10.1080/15502783.2026.2617283PMID 41579075PMC12833896
Sports nutrition comparisons
Comparative Effects of Dietary Protein, Creatine, and Omega-3 Supplementation on Muscle Strength, Endurance, and Recovery in Trained Athletes: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis
Network meta-analysis comparing randomized evidence across creatine, protein and omega-3 interventions in trained athletes.
Sports performance and supplement combinations
Effects of combined versus single supplementation of creatine and beta-alanine on aerobic and anerobic performance: a systematic review and network meta-analysis
Systematic review and network meta-analysis restricted to randomized controlled trials of creatine, beta-alanine or their combination.
Acute Responses to Creatine Monohydrate and L-Arginine, Alone and Combined, on Repeated-Sprint Power, Countermovement Jump Height, and Stroop Reaction Time in Recreationally Active Men: A Randomized Double-Blind Crossover Trial
Randomized double-blind four-period crossover trial directly testing acute creatine, L-arginine and their combination.
Sourcedoi:10.3390/metabo16090688PMID 42783813 Trial registry
Strength and power
The Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Upper- and Lower-Body Strength and Power: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Strength and resistance training
Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Resistance Training on Muscle Strength Gains in Adults <50 Years of Age: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Systematic review and meta-analysis of resistance-training strength outcomes in adults younger than 50.
Strength, performance and young adults
Creatine supplementation in young men under resistance versus non-resistance training: a systematic review and meta-analysis of strength, performance, and lean mass
Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials in healthy young men, stratified by training context.
Timing
Effects of creatine monohydrate timing on resistance training adaptations and body composition after 8 weeks in male and female collegiate athletes
Controlled human intervention study.
Vegetarian and vegan diets
Does creatine supplementation improve strength and power in physically active individuals on a vegan diet? a randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Triple-blind randomized placebo-controlled human trial in physically active vegan adults.
Muscle creatine levels and sprint performance in young adult vegans and vegetarians after 7 days of creatine monohydrate supplementation
Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled human intervention.
Vegetarian diets and creatine response
Effect of creatine and weight training on muscle creatine and performance in vegetarians
Controlled human intervention study.
Benefits of Creatine Supplementation for Vegetarians Compared to Omnivorous Athletes: A Systematic Review
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Weight gain and water retention
Creatine monohydrate supplementation on body weight and percent body fat
Controlled human intervention study.
Sourcedoi:10.1519/1533-4287(2003)017<0817:cmsobw>2.0.co;2PMID 14636103
Women and exercise performance
Does Creatine Supplementation Enhance Performance in Active Females? A Systematic Review
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Effects of creatine supplementation on exercise performance, physiological outcomes, and body composition in females engaged in exercise or training: a systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis
Female-specific systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis incorporating correlated outcomes.
Women and safety
Risk of Adverse Outcomes in Females Taking Oral Creatine Monohydrate: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Systematic review/meta-analysis of human evidence.
Women's health across the lifespan
Creatine in women's health: bridging the gap from menstruation through pregnancy to menopause
Peer-reviewed evidence review.
Sourcedoi:10.1080/15502783.2025.2502094PMID 40371844PMC12086928
Women, exercise and musculoskeletal health
Nutritional Supplementation Combined with Exercise for Musculoskeletal Health in Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Evaluating Proteins, Amino Acids, and Creatine across Reproductive Stages
Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials in women across reproductive stages, including three creatine-monohydrate trials.