Tier 4 — mechanistic

Betaine and B12 Intake, Glutathione Concentration, and MTHFR, PEMT, and MTHFD1 Genotypes Are Associated with Diabetes-Related Parameters in Polish Adults

Monika A Mlodzik-Czyzewska, Artur Szwengiel, Agata Chmurzynska
The Journal of nutrition 2025 155(1):111-121

Bibliography

PubMed
PMID 39442756
DOI
10.1016/j.tjnut.2024.10.036
Funding
Funding was not specified in the indexed record or accessible funding metadata.
Competing interests
Reported disclosure: The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Study snapshot

DesignCross-sectional nutrition/genotype study
ModelHuman participants
Sample421 Polish adults aged 20-40
InterventionHabitual dietary choline and/or betaine intake; no randomized TMG treatment
DurationDiet records, biomarkers and genotype assessment
EndpointsInsulin resistance; Diet; Genotype

What the study showed, in plain terms

Published in 2025, this source examined human observational and biomarker research. Design: Cross-sectional nutrition/genotype study. Sample/model: 421 Polish adults aged 20-40. The exposure or intervention was Habitual dietary choline and/or betaine intake; no randomized TMG treatment. Follow-up or treatment period: Diet records, biomarkers and genotype assessment.

Higher betaine intake was associated with lower insulin and HOMA-IR, alongside several other nutrient/genotype associations.

Observational exposure analysis: residual confounding and reverse causation remain possible. Associations do not establish that betaine supplementation causes the same outcome.

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Key findings

  • Higher betaine intake was associated with lower insulin and HOMA-IR, alongside several other nutrient/genotype associations.
  • The recorded outcome domains were Insulin resistance; Diet; Genotype.
  • The exposure was observed rather than assigned as an isolated supplement treatment.

What this study can and cannot tell us

  • Observational exposure analysis: residual confounding and reverse causation remain possible. Associations do not establish that betaine supplementation causes the same outcome.
  • Confounding, dietary patterns, illness, medication use and reverse causation can influence an association. Blood or dietary concentrations do not identify the effect of starting a capsule.
  • Source basis: Indexed abstract and bibliographic data. Missing method details, funding information or participant denominators are not inferred.

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Editorial review

Reviewed by the Biohack Blueprint research team

Last verified

Dr. Khaled Mahmoud, MBBChCritical Care Medicine, Longevity Science & Editorial Direction Dr. Amr Yasser, PhDCardiometabolic, Musculoskeletal, Gut & Bioavailability Dr. Abdulla Mostafa, PhDCellular Senescence, Neurological, Mitochondrial & Brain-Ageing Biology